When Was Glass Invented For Windows

The history of glass-making dates dorsum to at least 3,600 years ago in Mesopotamia. Notwithstanding, some writers claim that they may have been producing copies of drinking glass objects from Egypt.^[one] Other archaeological show suggests that the first truthful drinking glass was made in littoral north Syria, Mesopotamia or Egypt.^[ii] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid ii,000 BCE, were beads, peradventure initially created as the accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous textile made by a process like to glazing.^{[due north 1]} Glass products remained a luxury until the disasters that overtook the late Bronze Age civilizations seemingly brought glass-making to a halt.

Evolution of glass technology in India may have begun in one,730 BCE.^[3] In Ancient China, drinking glass-making had a later on start compared to ceramics and metal piece of work.

From across the former Roman Empire, archaeologists accept recovered glass objects that were used in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts. Anglo-Saxon glass has been plant across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Drinking glass in the Anglo-Saxon menstruation was used in the manufacture of a range of objects, including vessels, chaplet, windows, and was even used in jewelry.

Origins [edit]

Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies beyond the world for the product of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. Only in general, archaeological testify suggests that the first true glass was fabricated in coastal north Syrian arab republic, Mesopotamia or aboriginal Egypt.^[2] Because of Egypt'south favorable environment for preservation, the majority of well-studied early glass is constitute there, although some of this is likely to have been imported. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BCE, were beads, peradventure initially created as accidental by-products of metallic-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.^{[northward 1]}

During the Late Bronze Age in Arab republic of egypt (due east.g., the Ahhotep "Treasure") and Southwest asia (e.k., Megiddo),^[4] there was a rapid growth in glassmaking technology. Archaeological finds from this period include colored glass ingots, vessels (often colored and shaped in simulated of highly prized hardstone carvings in semi-precious stones) and the ubiquitous beads. The alkali of Syrian and Egyptian drinking glass was soda ash (sodium carbonate), which tin exist extracted from the ashes of many plants, notably halophile seashore plants like saltwort. The latest vessels were 'core-formed', produced past winding a ductile rope of glass effectually a shaped core of sand and clay over a metal rod, and so fusing it by reheating information technology several times.^{[ citation needed ]}

Threads of thin drinking glass of dissimilar colors made with admixtures of oxides were subsequently wound effectually these to create patterns, which could be drawn into festoons by using metal raking tools. The vessel would and then be rolled smooth (marvered) on a slab in gild to press the decorative threads into its body. Handles and feet were practical separately. The rod was subsequently immune to cool as the drinking glass slowly annealed and was eventually removed from the centre of the vessel, later which the core fabric was scraped out. Glass shapes for inlays were also frequently created in moulds. Much of early glass production, even so, relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stone working. This meant that the glass was footing and carved in a common cold state.^[five]

By the 15th century BCE, extensive glass production was occurring in Western asia, Crete, and Egypt; and the Mycenaean Greek term 𐀓𐀷𐀜𐀺𐀒𐀂 , ku-wa-no-wo-ko-i, meaning "workers of lapis lazuli and glass" (written in Linear b syllabic script) is attested.^[6] ^[7] ^[viii] ^{[n 2]} ^{[north 3]} It is thought that the techniques and recipes required for the initial fusing of glass from raw materials were a closely guarded technological secret reserved for the large palace industries of powerful states. Glass workers in other areas therefore relied on imports of preformed glass, often in the form of bandage ingots such every bit those found on the Ulu Burun shipwreck off the coast of mod Turkey.^{[ citation needed ]}

An early 18th-century goblet with coats of arms in the District Museum in Tarnów is one of the highest (54.3 cm, 21.4 in) preserved examples of artistry of less known Lubaczów drinking glass manufacturing manufacturing plant.^[xi] The goblet was virtually entirely covered with a design of so-called bother scales and hand-engraved ornament.^[11]

Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Historic period civilizations seemed to accept brought drinking glass-making to a halt.^{[ citation needed ]} It picked up again in its sometime sites, Syria and Cyprus, in the ninth century BCE, when the techniques for making colorless glass were discovered.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The first glassmaking "manual" dates back to ca. 650 BCE. Instructions on how to brand glass are contained in cuneiform tablets discovered in the library of the Assyrian male monarch Ashurbanipal.^{[ citation needed ]}

In Egypt, glass-making did non revive until it was reintroduced in Ptolemaic Alexandria. Core-formed vessels and beads were still widely produced, but other techniques came to the fore with experimentation and technological advancements.^{[ citation needed ]}

During the Hellenistic menstruum many new techniques of drinking glass production were introduced and glass began to exist used to make larger pieces, notably table wares. Techniques developed during this menstruum include 'slumping' viscous (but not fully molten) glass over a mould in social club to form a dish and 'millefiori' (meaning 'thousand flowers') technique, where canes of multicolored glass were sliced and the slices arranged together and fused in a mould to create a mosaic-similar effect. It was also during this period that colorless or decolored glass began to be prized and methods for achieving this effect were investigated more fully.^[12]

Co-ordinate to Pliny the Elder, Phoenician traders were the outset to stumble upon glass manufacturing techniques at the site of the Belus River. Georgius Agricola, in De re metallica, reported a traditional serendipitous "discovery" tale of familiar type:

"The tradition is that a merchant send laden with nitrum being moored at this identify, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and non having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass."^[13]

This account is more than a reflection of Roman experience of glass production, withal, equally white silica sand from this area was used in the product of glass within the Roman Empire due to its high purity levels. During the 1st century BCE, glass bravado was discovered on the Syro-Judean coast, revolutionizing the manufacture. Glass vessels were now inexpensive compared to pottery vessels. Growth of the utilize of glass products occurred throughout the Roman earth.^{[ citation needed ]} Glass became the Roman plastic, and glass containers produced in Alexandria^{[ citation needed ]} spread throughout the Roman Empire. With the discovery of articulate glass (through the introduction of manganese dioxide), by drinking glass blowers in Alexandria circa 100 Advert, the Romans began to use drinking glass for architectural purposes. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, began to appear in the virtually of import buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Over the next i,000 years, glass making and working connected and spread through southern Europe and beyond.^{[ citation needed ]}

History by culture [edit]

Iran [edit]

The first Persian glass comes in the course of chaplet dating to the belatedly Bronze Age (1600 BCE), and was discovered during the explorations of Dinkhah Tepe in Iranian Azerbaijan by Charles Burney. Glass tubes were discovered by French archaeologists at Chogha Zanbil, belonging to the middle Elamite period. Mosaic drinking glass cups accept besides been found at Teppe Hasanlu and Marlik Tepe in northern Islamic republic of iran, dating to the Iron Age. These cups resembles ones from Mesopotamia, as practice cups plant in Susa during the late Elamite catamenia.

Glass tubes containing kohl have also been found in Iranian Republic of azerbaijan and Kurdistan Province, belonging to the Achaemenid period. During this time, glass vessels were usually plain and colorless. By the Seleucid and tardily Parthian era, Greek and Roman techniques were prevalent. During the Sasanian period, glass vessels were decorated with local motifs.^[14]

India [edit]

Evidence of glass during the chalcolithic has been found in Hastinapur, India.^[15] The earliest glass particular from the Indus Valley Civilization is a brownish glass bead found at Harappa, dating to 1700 BCE. This makes it the earliest prove of glass in Southern asia.^[iii] ^[sixteen] Glass discovered from later sites dating from 600 to 300 BEC displays common colors.^[three]

Texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka mention glass, implying they could take been known in India during the early on first millennium BCE.^[15] Glass objects have also been establish at Beed, Sirkap and Sirsukh, all dating to effectually the 5th century BCE.^[17] However, the kickoff unmistakable testify for widespread glass usage comes from the ruins of Taxila (3rd century BEC), where bangles, chaplet, minor vessels, and tiles were discovered in large quantities.^[15] These glassmaking techniques may have been transmitted from cultures in Southwest asia.^[17]

The site of Kopia, in Uttar Pradesh, is the kickoff site in India to locally manufacture drinking glass, with items dating between the 7th century BCE to the 2nd century ce.^[xviii] Early on Indian glass of this period was likely made locally, as they differ significantly in chemical limerick when compared to Babylonian, Roman and Chinese glass.^[17]

By the 1st century Advertising, glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South asia.^[15] Contact with the Greco-Roman earth added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the succeeding centuries.^[xv] The Satavahana period of India also produced brusque cylinders of blended glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass.^[19]

People's republic of china [edit]

In China, glass played a peripheral part in arts and crafts when compared to ceramics and metal piece of work.^[20] The earliest glass items in China come from the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), although they are rare in number and express in archaeological distribution.

Glassmaking adult later in China compared to cultures in Mesopotamia, Egypt and India.^[21] Imported glass objects offset reached Prc during the late Spring and Autumn menses (early 5th century BCE), in the form of polychrome eye beads.^[22] These imports created the impetus for the product of indigenous glass beads.

During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the use of glass diversified. The introduction of drinking glass casting in this menstruation encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects.^[21] Chinese glass objects from the Warring States and Han period vary greatly in chemical limerick from the imported glass objects. The spectacles from this period incorporate high levels of barium oxide and pb, distinguishing them from the soda-lime-silica spectacles of Southwest asia and Mesopotamia.^[23] At the terminate of the Han Dynasty (AD 220), the lead-barium drinking glass tradition declined, with glass production merely resuming during the 4th and 5th centuries Advertisement.^[24] Literary sources also mention the industry of glass during the 5th century AD.^[25]

Romans [edit]

Roman drinking glass production developed from Hellenistic technical traditions, initially concentrating on the production of intensely colored, cast glass vessels. Glass objects have been recovered beyond the Roman Empire^[26] in domestic, funerary^[27] and industrial contexts.^[28] Glass was used primarily for the product of vessels, although mosaic tiles and window drinking glass were also produced.

However, during the 1st century Advertizing, the industry underwent rapid technical growth that saw the introduction of drinking glass-bravado and the dominance of colorless or 'aqua' glasses. Raw drinking glass was produced in geographically separate locations to the working of glass into finished vessels,^[29] ^[30] and, by the end of the 1st century CE, big scale manufacturing, primarily in Alexandria,^[31] resulted in the institution of glass equally a usually bachelor material in the Roman earth.

Islamic world [edit]

Islamic glass continued the achievements of pre-Islamic cultures, especially the Sasanian glass of Persia. The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820–897) described the clarity of such glass: "Its colour hides the glass as if it is standing in it without a container."^[32] In the eighth century, the Persian-Arab chemist Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber) described 46 recipes for producing colored glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.^[33] By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Islamic Spain.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Africa [edit]

During post-classical times, glass and drinking glass beads were as well produced in the kingdom of Benin.^[34]

Medieval Europe [edit]

A 16th-century stained glass window

Later on the plummet of the Western Roman Empire, independent glass making technologies emerged in Northern Europe, with artisan woods glass produced by several cultures. Byzantine Glass evolved the Roman tradition, in the Eastern Empire. The claw beaker was popular as a relatively like shooting fish in a barrel to make merely an impressive vessel that exploited the unique potential of glass.^{[ citation needed ]}

Glass objects from the 7th and eighth centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the afterwards importance of that city in the product of the textile. Around g AD, an of import technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by drinking glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern drinking glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.^[35]

Until the 12th century, stained glass – glass to which metal or other impurities had been added for coloring – was non widely used, but it chop-chop became an of import medium for Romanesque fine art and especially Gothic fine art. Almost all survivals are in church buildings, but it was likewise used in grand secular buildings. The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sail glass past blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to grade cylinders and and then cut while withal hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice. The crown glass procedure was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower would spin approximately 9 pounds (iv kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately five feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The deejay would and then be cutting into panes. Domestic glass vessels in tardily medieval Northern Europe are known as forest drinking glass.^{[ citation needed ]}

Anglo-Saxon world [edit]

Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the industry of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was even used in jewelry.^[36] In the 5th century Advert with the Roman departure from Britain, in that location were also considerable changes in the usage of glass.^[37] Earthworks of Romano-British sites has revealed plentiful amounts of glass but, in dissimilarity, the amount recovered from the 5th century and after Anglo-Saxon sites is minuscule.^[37]

The majority of complete vessels and assemblages of chaplet come up from the excavations of early on Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, but a change in burial rites in the tardily 7th century afflicted the recovery of glass, as Christian Anglo-Saxons were buried with fewer grave appurtenances, and glass is rarely institute. From the late 7th century onwards, window glass is institute more frequently. This is directly related to the introduction of Christianity and the construction of churches and monasteries.^[37] ^[38] There are a few Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical^[39] literary sources that mention the production and use of glass, although these relate to window glass used in ecclesiastical buildings.^[37] ^[38] ^[40] Glass was as well used by the Anglo-Saxons in their jewelry, both every bit enamel or as cut glass insets.^[41] ^[42]

Murano [edit]

The center for luxury Italian glassmaking from the 14th century was the island of Murano, which developed many new techniques and became the eye of a lucrative export trade in dinnerware, mirrors, and other items. What made Venetian Murano glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were well-nigh pure silica, and were ground into a fine articulate sand that was combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, for which the Venetians held the sole monopoly. The clearest and finest glass is tinted in two ways: firstly, a natural coloring agent is ground and melted with the glass. Many of these coloring agents nonetheless exist today; for a list of coloring agents, run across below. Black glass was called obsidianus after obsidian stone. A second method is apparently to produce a black glass which, when held to the low-cal, will show the true color that this glass will give to another glass when used as a dye.^[43]

The Venetian ability to produce this superior class of glass resulted in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Murano's reputation equally a heart for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing burn might burn down the city's more often than not wood buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their foundries to Murano in 1291.^{[ citation needed ]} Murano'southward glassmakers were soon the island's most prominent citizens. Glassmakers were not immune to get out the Republic. Many took a risk and gear up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield equally England and the netherlands.^{[ citation needed ]}

Bohemia [edit]

Bohemian glass, or Bohemia crystal, is a decorative glass produced in regions of Bohemia and Silesia, now in the electric current state of the Czech republic, since the 13th century.^[44] Oldest archaeology excavations of glass-making sites engagement to effectually 1250 and are located in the Lusatian Mountains of Northern Bohemia. Nearly notable sites of drinking glass-making throughout the ages are Skalice (German: Langenau), Kamenický Šenov (German: Steinschönau) and Nový Bor (German: Haida). Both Nový Bor and Kamenický Šenov accept their own Glass Museums with many items dating since around 1600. It was especially outstanding in its manufacture of glass in loftier Baroque fashion from 1685 to 1750. In the 17th century, Caspar Lehmann, gem cutter to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, adapted to drinking glass the technique of precious stone engraving with copper and bronze wheels.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Modernistic glass production [edit]

New processes [edit]

Glassblowers at work. Retort making.

A very important advance in glass manufacture was the technique of calculation lead oxide to the molten glass; this improved the appearance of the glass and made it easier to melt using sea-coal as a furnace fuel. This technique besides increased the "working period" of the glass, making it easier to manipulate. The process was offset discovered by George Ravenscroft in 1674, who was the first to produce articulate lead crystal glassware on an industrial calibration. Ravenscroft had the cultural and financial resources necessary to revolutionise the drinking glass trade, allowing England to overtake Venice equally the centre of the glass industry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Seeking to find an culling to Venetian cristallo, he used flintstone as a silica source, merely his glasses tended to crizzle, developing a network of small cracks destroying its transparency. This was eventually overcome past replacing some of the potash flux with lead oxide to the melt.^[45]

He was granted a protective patent in where production and refinement moved from his glasshouse on the Savoy to the seclusion of Henley-on-Thames.^[46]

By 1696, after the patent expired, xx-7 glasshouses in England were producing flintstone glass and were exporting all over Europe with such success that, in 1746, the British Regime imposed a lucrative revenue enhancement on information technology. Rather than drastically reduce the lead content of their drinking glass, manufacturers responded past creating highly decorated, smaller, more frail forms, oftentimes with hollow stems, known to collectors today as Excise glasses.^[47] The British glass making manufacture was able to take off with the repeal of the tax in 1845.

Evidence of the use of the blown plate drinking glass method dates back to 1620 in London and was used for mirrors and coach plates. Louis Lucas de Nehou and A. Thevart perfected the process of casting Polished plate glass in 1688 in France. Prior to this invention, mirror plates, made from blown "canvass" drinking glass, had been limited in size. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron tabular array rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible.^[48] This method of product was adopted by the English in 1773 at Ravenhead. The polishing process was industrialized around 1800 with the adoption of a steam engine to behave out the grinding and polishing of the bandage glass.

Industrial production [edit]

The façade of the Crystal Palace, one of the first buildings to apply glass every bit the main material for structure.

The employ of drinking glass as a edifice fabric was heralded by The Crystal Palace of 1851, built by Joseph Paxton to business firm the Cracking Exhibition. Paxton's revolutionary new edifice inspired the public use of glass as a fabric for domestic and horticultural architecture. In 1832, the British Crown Glass Visitor (later Chance Brothers) became the first company to adopt the cylinder method to produce sheet drinking glass with the expertise of Georges Bontemps, a famous French glassmaker.^{[n 4]} This glass was produced by blowing long cylinders of drinking glass, which were so cut along the length and then flattened onto a cast-iron table, before beingness annealed. Plate glass involves the glass existence ladled onto a cast-iron bed, where it is rolled into a canvas with an iron roller. The sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open oral cavity of an annealing tunnel or temperature-controlled oven called a lehr, down which it was carried by a system of rollers.^[49] James Hartley introduced the Rolled Plate method in 1847. This allowed a ribbed finish and was frequently used for extensive glass roofs such as inside railway stations.

An early advance in automating glass manufacturing was patented in 1848 past the engineer Henry Bessemer. His system produced a continuous ribbon of flat glass by forming the ribbon between rollers. This was an expensive process, as the surfaces of the drinking glass needed polishing and was afterwards abandoned by its sponsor, Robert Lucas Chance of Take a chance Brothers, equally unviable. Bessemer as well introduced an early form of "Bladder Glass" in 1843, which involved pouring glass onto liquid tin.

In 1887, the mass production of glass was developed by the house Ashley in Castleford, Yorkshire. This semi-automatic process used machines that were capable of producing 200 standardized bottles per 60 minutes, many times quicker than the traditional methods of manufacture.^[50] Chance Brothers as well introduced the automobile rolled patterned glass method in 1888.^[51]

In 1898, Pilkington invented Wired Cast glass, where the glass incorporates a strong steel-wire mesh for prophylactic and security. This was commonly given the misnomer "Georgian Wired Glass" but information technology profoundly post-dates the Georgian era.^[52] The Machine Fatigued Cylinder technique was invented in the US and was the outset mechanical method for the cartoon of window glass. It was manufactured under licence in the UK by Pilkington from 1910 onwards.

In 1938, the polished plate process was improved past Pilkington which incorporated a double grinding process to requite an improved quality to the finish. Between 1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the revolutionary float drinking glass process, the commencement successful commercial awarding for forming a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity.^[53] This method gave the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern windows are made from float drinking glass. Most bladder drinking glass is soda-lime glass, but relatively minor quantities of specialty borosilicate^[54] and flat console display glass are as well produced using the bladder drinking glass process. The success of this procedure lay in the careful remainder of the volume of glass fed onto the bathroom, where it was flattened by its own weight.^[55] Full calibration profitable sales of bladder drinking glass were beginning accomplished in 1960.

Gallery [edit]

Phoenician glass necklace 5th–6th century BC
Roman glass amphoriskoi 1st–2nd century AD
Blue head flask (Roman, AD 300–500, cast glass)
Lombardic drinking glass drinking horn 6th–7th century AD
2 cups cobalt blue glass with golden floral ornamentation from India, Mughal, circa 1700–1775
Base for a water piping, Republic of india, Mughal, c. 1700–1775
Venetian goblet fabricated in Italy in the early 19th century
Bracelets with peacocks, Delhi, enameled silvery inlaid with gemstones and glass, 19th century
Jug, 1876, James Powell & Sons
Siphon bottle for seltzer water, 1922
New Martinsville Glass Hostmaster Tea Cup, cobalt bluish, 1930

Meet also [edit]

Early glassmaking in the The states

Notes [edit]

^ ^a ^b Truthful glazing over a ceramic body was not used until many centuries after the production of the first drinking glass.
^ Found on the MY Oi 701, MY Oi 702, MY Oi 703 and MY Oi 704 tablets; the least damaged, equally far every bit this give-and-take is concerned, is MY Oi 703.^[9]
^ Cf. κύανος .^[x]
^ This process was used extensively until early in the 20th Century to make window glass.

References [edit]

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